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摘要: 钠金属因其成本低、自然丰度高、氧化还原电位低和理论比容量高等优点，被认为是高能电池的理想负极材料。然而，钠金属在充放电过程中易发生体积膨胀和产生钠枝晶，导致电池性能不断恶化，并引发安全隐患，严重阻碍了钠金属电池在实际中的应用。为了解决上述问题，国内外已进行了大量探索。其中，构建三维导电载体可以有效降低局部电流密度和成核能，抑制枝晶生长和减缓体积膨胀，在未来应用方面具有巨大的潜力。本文综述了近年来利用三维导电载体来提高钠金属负极电化学循环稳定性的研究进展并对三维导电载体进行了总结和分类。最后，从基础研究和实际应用两个方面讨论了三维导电载体材料在钠金属负极中的发展前景和未来研究方向。Abstract: Sodium is considered an ideal anode material for high-energy batteries because of its low cost, high natural abundance, low redox potential (−2.71 V vs SHE), and high theoretical specific capacity (1166 mA·h·g−1). However, due to the high reactivity, sodium rapidly reacts with the electrolyte to form an unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer during stripping/plating cycling. In addition, due to the large size change of sodium, the SEI layer repeatedly breaks and reassembles, resulting in the continuous consumption of sodium and electrolyte, as well as low coulombic efficiency and rapid capacity loss. Simultaneously, due to an uneven electric field distribution on sodium, numerous sodium dendrites generate during the repeated plating/stripping cycles. The growing Na dendrites easily pierce the separator, causing a short circuit and a series of safety issues. The above issues lead to the deterioration of battery performance and safety risks, thus considerably hindering the application of sodium metal batteries. Various studies have been conducted to solve these issues, including electrolyte engineering, artificial SEI layers, current collector and interlayer engineering, solid-state electrolyte engineering, and three-dimensional (3D) frameworks for sodium metal. Among various improvement strategies, the construction of a 3D conductive framework can effectively reduce the local current density, decrease nuclear energy, inhibit Na dendrite growth, and impede volume expansion, thus having a great potential in future applications. In this study, the current research progress in using various 3D conductive frameworks to improve the cycling stability of a sodium metal battery is reviewed, including carbon-based, metal-based, and MXene-based frameworks. Simultaneously, the pros and cons of different 3D conductive framework technologies in recent years are summarized and classified, and the electrochemical performance parameters of different 3D conductive frameworks for sodium metal batteries are compared. Finally, the development prospect and direction of 3D conductive frameworks in sodium metal anodes are discussed from basic research and practical applications. This review provides deeper insights into building more comprehensive and efficient sodium metal anodes. The 3D conductive framework technology can remarkably improve the cycle life and safety of a sodium metal battery. Multistrategy joint research methods will facilitate the practical applications of a sodium metal battery. Further exploration of the deposition behavior of sodium metal is required in the future, and we believe that it can definitely achieve commercial applications with continuous efforts.
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Key words:
- sodium metal battery /
- anode /
- Na dendrite /
- volume expansion /
- three-dimensional conductive framework
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图 1 (a) Na@rGO复合负极的合成过程示意图[54]; (b) Na@rGO的表面SEM图像[54]; (c) Na/Na和Na@rGO/Na@rGO 对称电池的恒流充放电循环[54]; (d) Cu箔、rGO和PRGO薄膜上Na金属的沉积示意图[56]; (e) Na金属在PRGO薄膜上沉积的力学模拟[56]; (f) 在1 mA·cm−2、1 mA·h·cm−2条件下，三种不同载体对称电池的恒流充放电循环[56]
Figure 1. (a) Schematic of the preparation of Na@rGO composites; (b) top-view SEM images of Na@rGO; (c) galvanostatic cycling of symmetric Na/Na and Na@rGO/Na@rGO cells after 300 cycles[54]; (d) schematic of Na nucleation and growth on Cu foil, planar rGO film, and flexible PRGO film, respectively; (e) tension schematics for Na plating on PRGO films through mechanical simulation; (f) symmetric cell patterns of Na plating on three matrices with the capacity limitation of 1 mA·h·cm−2 at the current density of 1 mA·cm−2[56]
图 2 (a) 氮掺杂石墨烯立方体 (PN-G) 复合结构的制备示意图[58]; (b) 钠在NG-NF电极上的成核和生长过程，以及在1 mA·cm−2、1 mA·h·cm−2条件下，Na、BNF@Na和NGNF@Na对称电池的恒电流充放电曲线[59]; 钠金属在 (c) rGO载体和 (d) NaF/SnO2@rGO载体的沉积示意图[60]
Figure 2. (a) Schematic of N-doped graphene microcube (PN-G) preparation[58]; (b) schematic of the Na nucleation and growth process on the NG-NF electrode and voltage profiles of Na plating/stripping in three symmetric cells (Na foil, BNF@Na, and NGNF@Na cells) at 1 mA·cm−2 for 1 mA·h·cm−2 [59]; schematic of the Na deposition process: (c) nonuniform or irregular growth of Na metal on rGO or scaffolds; (d) guided uniform Na plating in NaF/SnO2@rGO[60]
图 3 (a) 通过3D打印制备的NVP@C-rGO正极/Na@rGO/CNT负极的全电池示意图[61]; (b) 全电池在电流密度为电流密度为100 mA·g−1时的循环性能[61]; (c) Na@rGO/CNT电极在电流密度为2 mA·cm−2、容量为1 mA·h·cm−2时的恒电充放曲线上[62]; (d)裸钠和CNT-Na复合电极上的初始钠成核示意[62]; (e)裸钠和CNT-Na对称电池的恒电流循环曲线 (1 mA·h·cm−2, 0.5 mA·cm−2)[62]
Figure 3. (a) Schematic of the 3D-printed microlattice sodium ion full batteries with NVP@C-rGO as the cathode and Na@rGO/CNT as the anode[61]; (b) cycling performance at a current density of 100 mA·g−1[61]; (c) cycling performance of the Na@rGO/CNT electrodes at a high current density of 2 mA·cm−2 with a capacity limitation of 1 mA·h·cm−2; (d) schematic of initial Na nucleation on bare Na and CNT-Na composite electrodes; (e) galvanostatic cycling profiles of the Na/Na symmetric cells with bare Na and CNT-Na electrodes (1 mA·h·cm−2, 0.5 mA·cm−2) [62]
图 4 (a) 钠金属在Na/NSCNT负极上的沉积示意图[63]; (b) 钠与Al、Cu、CNT、NCNT、SCNT、NSCNT的结合能(Eb)[63]; (c) 电流密度为0.05 mA·cm−2时，不同集流体的初始成核能[63]; (d) 在电流密度为1 mA·cm−2、沉积容量为1 mA·h·cm−2时，Cu、Al、CNT和NSCNT的库仑效率[63]; (e) 在Of−CNT载体中，钠金属均匀沉积示意图[64]
Figure 4. (a) Schematic of the Na striping/plating on the Na/NSCNT anode; (b) binding energies of Na atoms with Al, Cu, CNT, NCNT, SCNT, and NSCNT; (c) the potential-capacity profiles during Na nucleation on different current collectors at a current density of 0.05 mA·cm−2; (d) coulombic efficiencies of Na plating/stripping on Cu foil, Al foil, CNT paper, and NSCNT paper at a current density of 1 mA·cm−2 with a capacity of 1 mA·h·cm−2 [63]; (e) schematic of the Na striping/plating on Of−CNT skeleton[64]
图 5 (a) 钠-碳毡 (Na/C)复合电极的制备[67]; (b) 钠金属在Cu、纯泡沫镍 (CNF) 和D-HCF电极上的初始成核能[71]; (c) 不同电流密度下D-HCF的初始成核能[71]; (d，e) 8.0 mA·h·cm−2的钠金属沉积在Cu箔和D-HCF上的光学照片[71];(f) 利用生物质废弃椰衣制备3D O-CCF载体的示意图[19]; (g) 金属钠封装在碳纳米薄片中的示意图[76]; (h) 钠金属沉积后石墨化碳微球的SEM图像[76]; (i) Au/CF载体的制备示意图[77]
Figure 5. (a) Fabrication of the Na/C composite anode[67]; (b) the initial voltage profiles on planar Cu, pure nickel foam (CNF), and D-HCF electrode[71]; (c) the initial voltage profiles on D-HCF at various current densities [71]; optical photos of Na deposition on (d) planar Cu and (e) D-HCF with an aerial loading of 8.0 mA·h·cm−2[71]; (f) fabrication schematic of 3D O-CCF matrix from biomass waste coconut coat[19]; (g) schematic of the encapsulated Na configuration where most nanoscale metallic Na is embedded inside the graphitized nanosheets[76]； (h) SEM image of the GCMs after Na deposition[76]; (i) fabrication schematic of the Au/CF host[77]
图 6 (a)钠金属在CuNW-Cu上循环沉积示意图[80]; (b) 裸泡沫铜和CuNW-Cu的首次充放电曲线[80]; (c)全电池充放电示意图[80]; (d) 3D Ni@Cu中钠金属的沉积示意图[79]
Figure 6. (a) Schematic of the Na plating processes on the CuNW-Cu substrate; (b) first charge−discharge profiles of bare Cu foam and CuNW-Cu; (c) illustration of completely charged and discharged states of the full cells[80]; (d) schematic of the Na plating process on 3D Ni@Cu[79]
图 7 (a) 钠金属在CF@ZnO上的成核和沉积过程[82]; (b) CF@ZnO界面局部电流密度分布的多物理场仿真模拟[82]; (c) 钠在Na15Sn4上的电荷密度[82]; (d) 钠在纯Na、Na2O和Na15Sn4上的结合能[83]; (e) 钠金属在Na-Sn合金/Na2O载体上的沉积/溶解示意图[83]; (f) Na在CNF上的沉积示意图[75]
Figure 7. (a) Schematic of the Na nucleation and deposition processes on CF@ZnO[82]; (b) COMSOL simulation of the local current density distribution at the substrate/electrolyte interface of CF@ZnO[82]; (c) charge density for Na on Na15Sn4[82]; (d) bar chart on the summary of the calculated binding energy of Na on pure Na, Na2O, and Na15Sn4[83]; (e) Na stripping and plating process on the Na–Sn alloy/Na2O framework[83]; (f) schematic of Na stripping/plating on CNF[75]
图 8 (a) h-Ti3C2/CNTs的合成示意图[84]; (b) 钠原子与碳原子 (CNTs)、氧原子 (h-Ti3C2O) 和氟原子 (h-Ti3C2F)的结合能[84]; (c) 钠在Cu、CNTs和h-Ti3C2/CNTs载体上的初始成核能[84]; (d) Na//O2电池示意图[84]; (e) 钠金属在CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2载体上的成核和沉积示意图[86]; (f) Na3V2(PO4)3//CT-Sn(II)@ Ti3C2/Na全电池示意图[86]; (g) CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2对称电池的倍率性能[86]; (h) Na3V2(PO4)3/Na和Na3V2(PO4)3/CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2/Na全电池在1C条件下的循环性能[86]
Figure 8. (a) Synthesis of h-Ti3C2/CNTs[84]; (b) corresponding binding energies of a Na atom with C atom (CNTs), O atom (h-Ti3C2O), and F atom (h-Ti3C2F) [84]; (c) nucleation overpotentials for Na plating on Cu, CNTs, and h-Ti3C2/CNTs hosts (at 1 mA·cm−2) [84]; (d) graph of the Na//O2 battery[84]; (e) schematics for the comparison of Na nucleation and deposition in CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2 matrixes[84]; (f) full-cell configurations of Na3V2(PO4)3//CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2/Na cells[86]; (g) rate performance of the CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2 symmetric cell[86]; (h) cycling performance of Na3V2(PO4)3//bare Na and Na3V2(PO4)3//CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2/Na cells at 1C[86]
图 9 3D导电载体应用于钠金属负极
Figure 9. Optimization strategy of a 3D conductive framework for Na metal anodes
表 1 使用不同3D导电载体的钠金属电池(SMBs) 的电化学性能
Table 1. Electrochemical performance parameters of different 3D conductive frameworks for SMBs
Ref. Materials Electrolyte Current density/ Capacity/ Time/ Coulombic efficiency/% (mA·cm−2) (mA·h·cm−2) h 19 O-CCF NaPF6 in diglyme 5 5 4000 99.80 54 Na@rGO NaPF6 in diglyme 1 1 600 56 PRGO NaPF6 in EC/DMC 1 1 1000 99.50 58 PN-G NaClO4 in EC/PC 5 3 600 59 NG-NF NaPF6 in diglyme 0.5 1 800 ＞99 60 NaF/SiO2@rGO NaSO3CF3 in diglyme 1 0.5 3000 99.87 61 rGO/CNT NaPF6 in diglyme 1 1 800 99.50 62 CNT-Na NaClO4 in EC/DMC 0.5 1 700 63 NSCNT NaSO3CF3 in diglyme 1 1 500 99.80 64 Of-CNTs NaPF6 in diglyme 1 1 4000 67 Na/C NaClO4 in EC/PC 1 2 27000 71 D-HCF NaSO3CF3 in diglyme 0.5 1 700 77 Au/CF NaCF3SO3 in diglyme 2 1 1000 99.50 80 CuNW-Cu NaPF6 in diglyme 1 2 1400 97.50 82 CF@ZnO NaPF6 in diglyme 1 3 500 99.50 83 Na-Sn alloy/Na2O NaClO4 in EC/PC 1 1 160 84 h-Ti3C2/CNTs NaCF3SO3 in diglyme 1 1 4000 99.20 86 CT-Sn(II)@Ti3C2 NaPF6 in diglyme 4 4 500 83.70 
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